📝 SummarXiv

Abstract

Quantum machine learning research has expanded rapidly due to potential computational advantages over classical methods. Angle encoding has emerged as a popular choice as feature map (FM) for embedding classical data into quantum models due to its simplicity and natural generation of truncated Fourier series, providing universal function approximation capabilities. Efficient FMs within quantum circuits can exploit exponential scaling of Fourier frequencies, with multi-dimensional inputs introducing additional exponential growth through mixed-frequency terms. Despite this promising expressive capability, practical implementation faces significant challenges. Through controlled experiments with white-box target functions, we demonstrate that training failures can occur even when all relevant frequencies are theoretically accessible. We illustrate how two primary known causes lead to unsuccessful optimization: insufficient trainable parameters relative to the model's frequency content, and limitations imposed by the ansatz's dynamic lie algebra dimension, but also uncover an additional parameter burden: the necessity of controlling non-unique frequencies within the model. To address this, we propose near-zero weight initialization to suppress unnecessary duplicate frequencies. For target functions with a priori frequency knowledge, we introduce frequency selection as a practical solution that reduces parameter requirements and mitigates the exponential growth that would otherwise render problems intractable due to parameter insufficiency. Our frequency selection approach achieved near-optimal performance (median $R^2 \approx 0.95$) with 78\% of the parameters needed by the best standard approach in 10 randomly chosen target functions.